GENDER
DIMENSIONS
Birth Control/Eugenics
Eugenics is a social philosophy that
advocates genetic improvement of human population. The idea encourages breeding
and reproduction by fit people, and discourages reproduction an even advocates
sterilization of people with less desired traits or negative traits or unfit
people. The application of the principle of eugenics can be traced in ancient
Greek societies and modern eugenics movement re-emerged in United Kingdom and
spread to other parts of Europe and America. The idea has been politicized and
many countries have adopted the principle to improve genetic qualities and
health of their citizens.
As measures of birth control Pills were
developed during 1920s, and subsequently came use of condoms. Even Margaret
Sanger advocated use of pills in support of eugenics, the methods of adopting
the most common techniques, namely pills and condoms are highly discriminating
towards female. Any contraceptive use disturbs the normal rhythm of child
bearing by females as it is crucial for a woman to be within the ideal
child-bearing age in order to deliver the new born without being subjected to
age-related risks. Even continuous use of pills may medically damage health and
mental wellbeing of a woman. But men are not subjected to such deprivation and
even spared of swallowing pills. Birth control techniques are highly gender
sensitive that discriminate against women.
Biological Determinism
Biological determinism follows from the overlapping
of two separate concepts; sex and gender. While sex denotes males and females on the basis of
physical features, sex organs, chromosomes, and hormones, gender denotes males
and females on the basis of social factors, namely social position, behaviour,
power, and identity. This segregation was made by the feminist ideologues to
counter the philosophy of biological determinism that is biology is the
destiny.
It has been argued by biological
determinists that metabolic state determines the sociological, psychological,
and behavioral traits of human beings. Propagators of biological determinism
argue that in male metabolism kinetic energy is released and in female
metabolism potential energy is stored. Thus women conserve energy that makes
them passive, conservative, slow, and uninterested in social activities
including politics. On the other hand, males break-down the protein and release
heat that make them energetic, active, and interested in social matters
including politics. On the basis of this difference of metabolism between males
and females, biological determinists not only differentiate between men and
women on the basis of behaviours but also try to justify the structure of the
society that deprive women from enjoying equal political rights with men. They
argue that biologically women are incapable of taking political
responsibilities and it would be futile to confer them political rights, as men
should enjoy, as they are pathologically did-interested in political
activities.
Social Determinants of Health
Social determinants of health (SDOH) are
certain social and economic conditions of individuals and their distribution
among the population. Income, wealth, power, food security, intake of nutrition
are the social determinants of health. It is argued that social determinants
have greater influence on the risk of disease or accidental death than
individual factors like behavioural risks and genetics.
Discrimination on the basis gender in
social determinants is no less pronounced. Social factors such as childhood
development, schooling or lack of it and degree of participation in public life
on the part of women determine how far they are aware of health problems and
their remedial measures. It is as clear as day-light that sub-ordination of
women by men on almost all societies in the world determines respective roles
of men and women in domestic and public life although the degree of such sub-ordination
in between countries and regions within the same country.
It is seen from empirical studies that
educational level of mothers and their degree of autonomy have positive
correlation with nutrition status of the family. In Latin American, and African
countries boys are seen to have greater access to nutrition than girls on the
presumption that boys are the future bread-earners for the family. Studies show
gender discrimination in food and healthcare allocation in many Latin American
countries.
The Hegemony of Biomedicine
Biomedical health care system enjoys
hegemonic position in developed as well as developing societies. Hegemony of
biomedicines has affected the complementary or alternative medicine (CAM) to a
great extent. Hegemony of biomedicine is the result of medicalisation that
includes de-socialization of diseases and explaining social phenomenon in
medical terms.
Studies show that there have been
differences in treatment of men and women in different areas clinical and
academic medicines.
In mainstream biomedical treatment sector,
gender is intertwined with biological sex. But gender is wider in connotation
than biological sex. In biomedicines life conditions, financial autonomy,
positions and influence in society in the lines of masculinity and femininity
are to be considered in matters of professional encounters and theorizing
medical conditions of men and women. Hence lack of awareness of gender aspects
on the part of medical practitioners can lead to gender discrimination in
administering biomedical treatment. Differences between men and women as
regards investigation and treatment are found by many studies. In treatment of
ailments like coronary heart disease, HIV/AIDS, Parkinson’s disease and others
investigation and treatment show negative bias for women. On the other hand,
negative bias for men is reported in treatment of migraine and depression.
It is also evidenced that apart from
gender discrimination in investigation and treatment in biomedicine, gender
bias also exists in medical education, career as medical practitioner, and
medical research.
Health and Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a feminist concept
that focuses on the intersection of different oppressed groups of people. The
identities of human beings determined by history and other social relations
give rise to their oppression. Some feminist scholars define intersectionality
as a process by which social status, race, and gender of people lead to their
inferior social status.
Gender identities of human beings are
highly responsible in determining vulnerability to health diseases. It is well
documented that men are less likely to seek medical advice as compared to
women. The reason behind such behaviour is the hegemony of masculinity and the
notion that men are stronger than women. Expressing physical or emotional
weakness is dichotomous to the concept of masculinity. A study by London School
of Economics shows that masculinity cannot fully justify such behavior of men
but culture and race also play role in shaping this behaviour.
Gender bias can also be noticed in the
services provided by the health service. Research undertaken by World Health
Organization shows that doctors are more inclined to treat depression in women
than in men. But this cannot be preceded by assumption that men are more prone
to depression as compared to women. Women are more prone to depression and men
are more likely to encounter substance-abuse problems. World Health
Organization opines that women’s vulnerability to social and economic shock
places women at risk of depression.
Social Model of Disability
The social model of disability says that
disability is created by the structure of society rather than personal
impairment. It explores ways of removing barriers for the disabled so that they
can live lives equally as able persons. Feminist thinkers have pointed out that
social model of disability is open to gender bias. They argue that disabled men
and disabled women often enjoy different social status. Many socially disabled
feminist writers have long discarded the notion that socially disabled women
are doubly oppressed than disabled men because patriarchy and disabilism
operate in conjunction.
Disabled people are identified with people
without gender. Thus gender has little to do with social disability. But in reality
the image of social disability cab be intensified with gender identities like
disabled women have a sense of passivity and helplessness where as disabled men
can create corrupted masculinity. The images of helplessness and corrupted
masculinity have real implications in education, employment, personal
relationships, etc. The gender bias of social disability shows sustained patterns
of differences between men and women. It is found that more women than men fall
in the category of disabled persons. It is so because large proportions of
elderly people are elderly women with disabilities. While disabled persons are
poor but it is documented that disabled women are poorer than disabled men.
Privatization of Health Care
Rapid privatization of healthcare has
resulted in hospitals focusing on the urban educated women with financial
means. Overall healthcare services for women remain inferior as compared to
that for men. In addition to that corporate healthcare services are more and
more privatized in which only urban women are targeted and rural women with
severe health issues are neglected by the privatized healthcare sector. Privatization
of healthcare services has transformed public institutions to commodity-base
institutions. Works have been taken away from professional staff to low-paid
casual staff.
Privatization of healthcare services has
given rise to new kind of gender discrimination. Women constitute more than 80%
of paid and unpaid staff and are also most frequent recipients of healthcare
services. Most of the nursing, dietary, and housekeeping staff are women who
have lost jobs due to restructuring of healthcare business. As the healthcare
services moves from public to private domain, it ceases to remain an insured
service.
Privatization is the major part of reform
of healthcare services and governments are saving money at the cost of women
both as patients as well as service providers. Privatization of healthcare has
resulted in fall in access to healthcare for rural women, and reduced income
and job opportunities for women in the healthcare sector.