1: Niccolo Machiavelli is one of the
recognized Italian Renaissance historian, a famous diplomat of that time, a
popular humanist and a politician of that time. He is better known and
recognized as the creator of political science. He was the former theorist who
first who discriminated and separated the concept of politics from ethics and
drew an autonomy and independence in the study of politics. In one of his
handbooks like as “The Prince”, he claimed that he is actually not interested in
speaking of ideal republics and imaginary
utopias. He dealt with effectual truth of politics in his
works. The major motive was to ensure realistic use of the self-government. His
works like as “The Prince” literally shows the world about the expected
intricacies that the world would have experienced if the same were looked in a
demoralized perspective.
2: During the period of enlightenment, with
the help of the philosophical movements that even controlled and governed the
world of ideas. The fundamental element of enlightenment era is closely related
to the concept of “scientific revolution”.
The same movement also a included a wide range of facts and facets of liberty,
tolerance, progress, fraternity, constitutional government and the severance of
church and the state itself.
3: The era of enlightenment was the age
when rambling intellectuals, philosophers, cultural figures and social
movements had scattered through England, France, Germany and other parts of
Europe. Enlightenment is defined as the evolution of man from his self- incurred
immaturity. According to Kant, good morality can be perceived through
the era of enlightenment that really occurs only when there are least external influences,
which may even result in corruption
(Smith, 2013).
4: Hegel’s Phenomenology of Mind is
actually related to the only recognition. According to his
philosophical movement, the nature of the recognized desire actually turns up
to be a master, whereas the
recognizing desire takes the nature of a slave.
Slave is actually, what represents the ability of working under the
instructions of the masters. Slaves are actually de-humanized according to the philosophy
and the master’s existence purely depends on the existence of the slaves. Hegel
introduced the concept of slave ideology. He was the first to
realise that slaves must accredit the need of external content of freedom. According to his beliefs, equality, justice and freedom are
symmetric for all masters and slaves in the world afterlife. He believed that
there is no master without a slave and that led him to consider the concept of
formal freedom for slaves apart from material freedom.
6: Marx’s conception of “Commodity
Fetishism” enables to understand the dichotomy of commodities.
Commodity according to him is the explicit objects that satisfy the wants of
the human beings. Commodity Fetishism
is the technique where the commodities persuade with the benefit of the
financial exposition that even empowers the value of the commodity irrespective
of the labour productivity. Marx has identified the two most important aspects
in “Commodity Fetishism” namely – use value and exchange value. He
considered the modern technological advancements as mysterious objects. Commodities
are actually magical in nature as they are dissimilar from the manufacturing
processes.
7: According to the Marx theory of human
nature, human nature is generally treated as “species-being” or
“species-essence”. Marx also expressed the viewpoint that humans are
different from animals. Human beings
produce their own physical environments. According to the philosophies of
Marx, productive activities were always essential for carrying on human
activities (Calzada-Pérez, 2014).
8: Relative autonomy is the concept that
relates to the state power depending upon the Marxist ideas. The phenomenon of
relative autonomy takes into consideration that the state may play the role of
a limited sovereign role in maintaining the stability of a capitalist society. The
concept of relative autonomy is different from pluralism by considering the
state power as a diverse element from the ideological and structural
characteristics of capitalism and a capitalist society. Gramsci has tried to
encompass with the economic bases of mission control according to the Marxism
theories of relative autonomy those edges out to the passive agents of
superstructure model.
10: False consciousness is the basic
concept that is actually imitative in nature from the Marxist theory of social class. False consciousness also
encompasses with the methodical falsification of the foremost social relations
in the society with the subordinates existing in the society. While Marx
offered an objective theoretical ideology for class that is entirely based on
the analysis of the objective features of economic relations that builds up the
social constructs for the society, Louis Althusser mostly came up with a
significant perspective that supported the roles of ideology in the class
society. The findings of Althusser actually distinguish from interpretations of
Marx and the former states the relevance of “ideological state apparatus” that generates social states of knowledge
in the society. Althusser’s works strongly places arguments regarding the fact
that ideologies are insentient in nature and he believed that social structure
is reluctantly imposed upon most of the men in the society.
11: The ideology of reproducing labour
power by Althusser is considered as the most effective ideological apparatus.
This ideology helps in lending labour power a new material means for
reproducing itself by means of wages. As wages are the cost of labour
and is the value of the labour, the same helps in progression of the labour
power of the wage earners, this ideology seems to be an effective phenomenon being applied in reproducing efficient
labour power in relation to the material conditions in the production
processes.
13: Lacan focused on three stages of
psychosexual development namely – the real order, the imaginary order and the
symbolic order. According to his perception, the infant usually stumbles upon a
mirror. In his theories, ego is always alienated as the same is destructive in
nature. Too much of ego can make individuals less sympathetic. It can also
restrict people from growing. Ego can make an individual competitive but in an
unhealthy manner. The same creates the situation more critical in nature.
14: Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the
Prison, the book written by Michel Foucault referred to only identify
the social as well as the theoretical constructs that took place in the Western
penal system and legislative systems. Foucault only proactively focussed and
considered the legal systems and the political background of the physical
phenomenon that liberated the rights and the power of the regimes. He also
produced a clear outline of the fact that imprisonment has not just become the
only form of penalty for punishing any individual on the humanitarian grounds (Gunder, 2010). However, he has
also empowered that imprisonment with disciplines are also found in many places
like as school, colleges and even care homes. He argued later that disciplinary
power controls and even is circumstantial to the entire society. He believed
that there are two types of punishments – violent punishment and chaotic public
torture. Foucault however wanted his readers to consider the factors driving
them towards changes and the ways in which the concept of the western attitudes
changed. He also believed that punishment corresponded to the initial step to generalize
the significance of punishment.
15: The three most important phases of
problem for madness are as follows – the Renaissance, the “Classical Age” and the
Modern experience. Foucault
contends to the dawn of age of reason.
17: Ideology is actually comprises of
normative beliefs, conscious and unconscious ideas that a particular society
usually is usually considered. The idea of progress initially was grown up from
the perspective of enlightenment since the 18th century. Human
nature is actually difficult and the same is actually twisty. Most of the human
beings are compliant and are neither good nor bad and thus compassion is an innate as cruelty.
18: The Great Transformation written by
Karl Polanyi. He tried to contend that the contemporary market economy and the
contemporary nation state must appreciate the different elements of the human
invention. The ideology of the great transformation deals with the economic
mentalities. In this particular ideology, people are mostly based on the reciprocity
and redistribution of the capitalist institutions.
19: Science is actually anarchistic
enterprise according to the words of Paul Feyerabend. The concept seems
to be valid on the humanitarian grounds and also facilitates and encourages the
progress in the legal and jurisdictional alternatives existing within the
society.
20: Capitalism is referred to a particular
system that assures people to live a self-fulfilled life. This is mostly common
in America, mostly in divorce cases, child abuse, domestic violence and
alcoholism among the people. Irrespective of self-realization, there exist some
levels of alienation, which may even lead to self-deception at several cases. Marx
tried to encompass with reasons for how capitalism became an economic concept
as – the same is a recognized economic system and that too emphasizes with the
division of labour and thus influences the profitability of the nation. Capitalism
is an ideology as the same generates alienation that the same is an economic
system where the subordinates usually control the productivity as well as the
labour power (Althusser, 2014).
22: A dominant culture is the one that
helps in providing effective ways of interaction and understanding that are
actually relevant to the groups and the situation. Often it is impossible for
that particular group to get depressed and suppressed as the group is characterized
with innovation, confidence and effective organization. The most anonymous
example is the field of education. There are different ways in which education
can be represented namely – the skill of developing individual capacities,
social constructs for giving the children the feasibility in attaining skills
that actually contribute towards the benefits of the society and to make every
student loyal and an obedient citizen. However, the concept of culture later
was introduced to replace the language of race. The essence of cultures
endorsed in cultural relativism is actually today fostered through the
execution of several multicultural approaches to education,
policymaking and activism. This however
facilitates the schematization of the modern communal and supporting relations.
This is mostly because, due to the failure of the culturalist approaches that
usually intended in encountering the racism, specifically attributed towards
the supposed individuality politics mostly among the minority groups.
23: Within the teacher-student
relationship, there exists a narrative character. Narration however helps the
students in memorising the narrated content automatically. According to Paulo
Freire, based on the humanitarian ground, education has positively become an
act of deposition where the depositories as well as the professors play the
role of depositors. The stakes usually lie around the fact that leads to change
the consciousness of the oppressed. Often people who are more oppressed are
able to adapt this situation rather than that of the dominated individuals. The
oppressed individuals are however recognized as the pathology for the entire
society. The nature of the problem-posing education can withstand the security
of the oppressor.
24: Universal coldness is actually a
metaphor. The concept of universal coldness actually refers to the social
exclusion of any class from the society due to any severity in the social
constructs and they are being deprived from getting included in any social
factors. Moreover, the concept claims that universal coldness relates to the
social exclusion due to cold-related concepts. Social exclusion from the
society actually makes people deprived and isolated from the society. Social
exclusion also leads individuals from on-line virtual interaction and that do
increases the desire of the people to have warm food. This particular outlook
also intends in facilitating the social cognition of the employees and also
literally supports the perceptual contents of the same (Paliokosta & Blandford, 2010).
